Sacred groves in India’s northern Western Ghats are experiencing the highest levels of human disturbance among all forest protection regimes, according to a new scientific study. The findings highlight a growing paradox: forest patches that have traditionally survived through cultural protection are now among the most pressured, even as they continue to play a crucial role in conserving biodiversity.
Sacred groves are community-protected forest patches linked to religious beliefs and nature worship. For generations, social taboos and cultural practices helped safeguard these ecosystems from exploitation. However, researchers found that these groves now face intense anthropogenic pressure, driven by changing land-use patterns, urbanisation and the gradual erosion of traditional conservation norms.
Despite this, the study underscores the ecological significance of sacred groves. Even under high disturbance, they continue to shelter mature, old-growth trees and endemic species that are increasingly rare elsewhere in the landscape. Scientists say this reinforces the importance of sacred groves as irreplaceable biodiversity refuges.
The research focused on the northern Western Ghats and the Konkan region, a stretch of nearly 750 kilometres that makes up about one-third of the Western Ghats. Bounded by the Tapti River in Gujarat to the north and the Kali River in Karnataka to the south, this region is climatically and geologically distinct. It also faces more severe fragmentation and human pressure than many southern sections of the Western Ghats.
While previous studies have examined individual forest types across the Western Ghats, this is the first comprehensive comparison of four different forest protection regimes in the northern Western Ghats. These include sacred groves, state-managed reserve forests, legally protected areas such as national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, and private forests including coffee plantations and silviculture plots.
Researchers assessed woody plant diversity, species composition and forest structure across these regimes. They measured species richness, tree abundance, girth at breast height and basal area, along with a Combined Disturbance Index that captured both the number and intensity of human disturbances.
The study identified eight major types of anthropogenic disturbance, including tree cutting, branch lopping for fuel and fodder, fire, livestock grazing, construction activities, internal pathways, tourism and religious festivals, and proximity to roads. Sacred groves recorded the highest disturbance levels, with an average disturbance index significantly higher than that of private forests, reserve forests and protected areas.
Across all forest types, researchers documented 3,360 woody plants belonging to 148 species, 118 genera and 43 plant families. Sacred groves showed the greatest cumulative disturbance, followed by private forests. Reserve forests and protected areas experienced comparatively lower disturbance, with protected areas emerging as the least disturbed overall.
The study found that prolonged human pressure alters forest structure over time, affecting species composition, biomass, carbon storage and canopy cover, even within landscapes that enjoy some form of protection. In sacred groves, declining regeneration and a low abundance of younger trees point to growing stress on these ecosystems.
Fire, grazing and human activities associated with tourism and religious gatherings were identified as major contributors to disturbance. The weakening of traditional belief systems that once governed access and use of sacred groves has further increased their vulnerability.
Despite these challenges, sacred groves continue to support ecologically important species. Many harbour large, mature trees and endemic flora that are absent or scarce in surrounding forests. Researchers noted that while significant losses of sacred groves have been reported over the past five decades, their remaining patches still offer disproportionate conservation value.
Reserve forests emerged as the most species-rich among the four regimes, supporting the highest number of evergreen and endemic species. These forests also showed strong regeneration, with a high density of young trees, indicating healthier recruitment dynamics.
Protected areas displayed similar patterns, maintaining high tree densities and early successional communities while retaining pockets of old-growth vegetation in less-disturbed zones. In contrast, private forests were found to be the most degraded, with the lowest tree density and basal area. These forests were dominated by deciduous species and bore the legacy of past and ongoing logging.
However, the study noted that private forests also offer opportunities for restoration, particularly if human pressure is reduced and native evergreen species are reintroduced.
Overall, the researchers concluded that no single protection regime can represent the full biodiversity and structural complexity of forests in the northern Western Ghats. Instead, conservation outcomes depend on a mosaic of management systems, each contributing differently to species persistence, regeneration and ecosystem resilience.
They stressed that safeguarding the region’s biodiversity will require tailored strategies that recognise the ecological roles of sacred groves, reserve forests, protected areas and private forests alike. Strengthening community participation, regulating disturbances and supporting restoration efforts across all regimes will be essential to ensure the long-term survival of endemic species and forest ecosystems in the northern Western Ghats.