NEW DELHI: India transition towards cleaner and low carbon cities faces two interconnected challenges weak municipal waste management systems that contribute to open waste burning and poor quality employment in emerging green sectors, according to two new working papers by World Resources Institute (WRI) India.
One study, based on field surveys across 11 polluted Indian cities found that open waste burning was about three times higher in winter than in summer with poorer neighbourhoods bearing the greatest burden. A second study focusing on Bengaluru’s buildings sector found that the shift towards green buildings is creating demand for new skills, but construction workers continue to face gaps in safety, job security, wages, social protection and gender inclusion.
Together, the studies call for more effective waste collection and monitoring, targeted interventions in areas vulnerable to waste burning, green skilling programmes linked with labour welfare, and stronger social protection for construction workers.
India generates nearly 170,339 tonnes of municipal solid waste every day. Of this, around 54 per cent is processed and 24 per cent is sent to landfills, while the remaining 22 per cent is uncollected or untreated. A significant portion of the unmanaged waste is burned in the open.
Estimates of open waste burning vary widely, ranging from about 10 per cent to more than 40 per cent, reflecting gaps in reliable ground level data.
Winter sees sharp rise in waste burning
The WRI India study on open waste burning is among the first multi city primary survey datasets examining the issue. Researchers conducted physical transect surveys in 11 cities between 2019 and 2026, covering winter and summer seasons. Ten of the cities were classified as non attainment cities under the National Clean Air Programme.
The cities were divided into three population based tiers. Researchers examined the frequency of waste burning, the amount and composition of waste burned, and estimated particulate matter emissions.
Across all three tiers, the average incidence of waste burning and associated emissions was around three times higher in winter than in summer. Researchers attributed the increase partly to weaknesses in waste collection and management and, in some areas, the use of burning as a source of warmth.
Wintertime burning was highest in Tier 3 cities. The mean daily incidence increased from 39.4 incidents per square kilometre in Tier 1 cities to 49.6 incidents per square kilometre in Tier 3 cities. During summer, Tier 2 cities recorded the highest incidence, averaging 33.3 incidents per square kilometre per day.
The study also identified a strong socio economic pattern. Low income areas consistently recorded the highest levels of waste burning. In Tier 2 cities, the incidence in low socio economic areas reached nearly 84 incidents per square kilometre per day during winter, while high socio economic areas recorded the lowest levels.
The quantity of waste burned was highest in Tier 2 cities, where average daily mass nearly doubled from about 20.9 tonnes in summer to 41 tonnes in winter.
Tier 3 cities recorded the lowest total citywide mass of waste burned, but the highest annual per capita quantity at 6.9 kg. This compared with 4 kg in Tier 2 cities and 0.63 kg in Tier 1 cities.
Plastics and paper together accounted for about one quarter of the burned material, highlighting problems with waste segregation and disposal. Other materials included dried leaves, garden waste, textiles, wood residue, food waste and roadside or municipal waste.
Poor waste systems drive local pollution
Estimated annual per capita PM2.5 emissions from open waste burning were highest in Tier 3 cities at 0.09 kg, followed by 0.05 kg in Tier 2 cities and 0.008 kg in Tier 1 cities.
The researchers cautioned that these figures represent estimated emissions and should not be interpreted as measurements of individual or population level exposure.
Available literature suggests that PM2.5 and PM10 emissions from open waste burning account for less than 1 per cent of total citywide emissions. However, burning frequently takes place close to homes, roads and waste accumulation points, potentially increasing people’s short term exposure to toxic pollutants.
The drivers of waste burning differed between cities. In Tier 3 cities, researchers identified the belief that burning helps control mosquitoes as one factor. In Tier 1 and Tier 2 cities, burning by municipal workers and contractors was identified as a significant driver. Waste dumped outside designated collection areas was also prominent in Tier 2 and Tier 3 cities.
Common weaknesses included inadequate door to door collection, irregular collection schedules, vehicle breakdowns, insufficient segregation and storage space, limited landfill capacity and poor collection of garden waste.
The study recommends stronger monitoring and enforcement in Tier 1 and Tier 2 cities, scientific alternatives for vector control and awareness campaigns in Tier 3 cities, and dedicated collection systems for garden, bulk and special waste.
It also calls for rapid response cleaning teams, routine surveillance, warning signs in waste burning hotspots, better training for municipal staff and adequate collection resources.
The researchers stressed that the findings are exploratory and should not be treated as a ranking of cities. Limitations included an uneven number of cities in different tiers, some seasonal estimates based on a single city, surveys conducted over an extended period and the use of 2011 Census data for socio economic classifications.
Green buildings create opportunities but workers remain vulnerable
The second WRI India working paper examined whether Bengaluru’s transition towards low carbon buildings can generate what researchers describe as “decent green jobs”.
The buildings sector accounts for around half of Bengaluru’s greenhouse gas emissions. According to the study the shift towards greener buildings is creating demand for specialists in energy, water and waste systems, prefabrication and modular construction, as well as skills involving low carbon materials, designs and construction techniques.
Retrofitting and construction and demolition waste management are also emerging areas of employment.
The study drew on five focus group discussions involving 55 construction workers in Bengaluru, along with interviews with stakeholders. Researchers assessed decent work through six areas: wages, workplace safety, job security, career progression, worker rights and gender inclusion. Climate vulnerability was also considered under workplace safety.
Construction workers in Bengaluru generally earn more than workers in agriculture and some other informal sectors. However, the study found that higher wages do not necessarily translate into decent employment.
Unskilled construction workers typically earn between ₹500 and ₹1,000 a day, while secondary skilled workers earn between ₹700 and ₹1,500, depending on their role and project.
Large construction projects generally demonstrated better safety compliance, including daily safety briefings, dedicated safety offices and protective equipment. Smaller projects often had weaker enforcement, lower mechanisation and greater safety risks.
Workers may also live in temporary camps or unfinished buildings, where exposure to heat and dust can increase workplace stress.
Women face a significant employment gap
The study found substantial gender disparities in construction employment. Women accounted for only around 2 to 3 per cent of workers at the sites studied.
Women in similar unskilled roles earned around ₹200 less per day than men, while women engaged in secondary-skilled concrete “gang work” earned approximately ₹300 less than their male counterparts.
Social protection also remains limited. As of September 2025, 288,767 workers, or 10.44 per cent, had received financial benefits through 10 schemes under the Karnataka Building and Other Construction Workers Welfare Board.
Although Bengaluru had the highest share of registered construction workers in Karnataka, only about 3 per cent received benefits under all the schemes. Migrant workers from other states face additional barriers linked to documentation and movement across state borders.
Green transition must include labour protection
The study argues that creating green jobs alone will not guarantee a just transition. Many existing construction roles require only modest skill upgrades to work with greener materials and techniques, potentially allowing vulnerable workers to move into emerging green occupations.
However, employment conditions must improve alongside skill development.
WRI India recommends linking green skilling initiatives with labour welfare measures. These include employer assisted registration for welfare schemes at construction sites, simplified documentation, portability of benefits across states, worker facilitation desks, stronger contractor accountability and compensation for wages lost during training.
The researchers also recommend using welfare funds to strengthen climate responsive occupational safety.
Specialised formal crews and all women crews could also help improve bargaining power, workplace safety and job security while potentially increasing productivity, the study said.
Taken together, the two studies indicate that India’s urban transition cannot depend solely on cleaner technologies. Open waste burning demonstrates how weak municipal systems can contribute to local air pollution, particularly in poorer neighbourhoods, while Bengaluru’s green building transition shows that decarbonisation can create employment opportunities only if skills development is accompanied by stronger labour protections, decent working conditions and social security.